What was the Big Stick policy?

The “Big Stick policy”, or “Big Stick diplomacy”, is a foreign policy approach that advocates combining peaceful negotiations with the implicit threat of military force. It traces its roots back to Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States from 1901 to 1909, and remains a significant concept of the nation’s foreign policy history. To understand its significance, we must delve into its origins, practical applications and legacy.

The origins of the concept

In the closing years of the 19th century, the United States emerged as a new world power. The rapid industrialization and urbanization of the country allowed it to extend its reach beyond North America, positioning itself alongside the longstanding empires of Europe. During William McKinley’s administration, for example, the U.S. won a war against Spain — the Spanish-American War of 1898 — and began to exert control over Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines.

In 1901, Theodore Roosevelt rose to power as McKinley’s successor. He believed that the United States, bolstered by its recent military successes, did not always need to resort to overt force to achieve its international objectives. The mere threat of potential military action, if negotiations were not fruitful, often sufficed.

Roosevelt outlined his views through a West African proverb that he was fond of:

“Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far”

In a speech at the Minnesota State Fair on September 2, 1901, he used this phrase as a metaphor. It meant that he emphasized the need for careful negotiations with other countries (“speaking softly”) while maintaining the capability and willingness to use military force (“big stick”) if required.

The Roosevelt Corollary

In 1823, then President James Monroe had formulated the Monroe Doctrine. According to him, any European intervention in Americas would be considered a potentially hostile act against the United States.

When Roosevelt took power, he thought of the U.S. as the “policeman” of the Western Hemisphere, with a moral imperative to ensure stability, especially in its immediate neighborhood. So he expanded the Monroe Doctrine, claiming that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American nations to maintain stability.

“In cases of flagrant and chronic wrongdoing by a Latin American country, the United States could intervene in that country’s internal affairs”

Roosevelt Corollary

Big Stick policy in Latin America

Big Stick ideology and the Roosevelt Corollary would inspire several U.S. interventions in Latin America.

The Venezuelan affair of 1902

In 1902, the Venezuelan government defaulted on its debts — much to the dismay of its European creditors. Britain, Germany, and Italy retaliated by blocking the country’s ports and imposing an embargo, as a way to pressure it into fulfilling its financial obligations.

On the one hand, Roosevelt was convinced that Venezuela had to make good on its obligations. Thus he believed that the naval blockade was fair — provided that the Europeans did not seize territory in Latin America.

On the other hand, Roosevelt worried that use of force against Venezuela could set a dangerous precedent for future interventions in the continent. Accordingly, he denounced the Europeans and persuaded them to accept a compromise solution to the crisis. In 1903, the Venezuelans would agree to commit 30% of its customs duties to paying previous debts.

The construction of the Panama Canal

The United States had long acknowledged the benefits of a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the end of the 19th century, Nicaragua and Panama were both speculated as possible locations for such a venture.

Eventually, Nicaragua was ruled out because flooding its gigantic forests would not be viable. So the U.S. initiated negotiations with Colombia, which ruled over Panama at that time, and France, which was also interested in the project.

When talks stalled, Roosevelt supported a Panamanian revolution, leading to the formation of Panama as a separate nation. The Colombians attempted to reverse this fact, but were thwarted by the nearby presence of the U.S. military.

Following this threat of intervention, the U.S. successfully undertook the construction of the canal, which was opened in 1914.

U.S. involvement in Cuba

After the Spanish-American War of 1898, Cuba was granted nominal independence. In practice, though, it fell under the control of the United States.

In 1901, the U.S. Congress passed the Platt Amendment to the Army Appropriations Bill. It contained seven conditions for the withdrawal of American troops from Cuban territory — this is their essence:

1. Cuba cannot make treaties or agreements with foreign powers that would weaken its independence or allow foreign control or colonization of any part of the island.
2. Cuba cannot accumulate public debt that its government is unable to pay.
3. The United States can intervene militarily to protect Cuban independence, ensure a stable government, safeguard life, property, and individual liberty, and fulfill American obligations.
4. The actions taken by the United States military in Cuba are valid, and any rights acquired during that time will be upheld.
5. Cuba commits to following plans for sanitation in cities to prevent disease outbreaks.
6. The sovereignty over the Isle of Pines will be decided in the future.
7. Cuba will sell or lease lands to the United States at specified points for coaling or naval stations (later on, this would lead to the construction of the U.S. Navy base at Guantánamo Bay).

As a means to ensure their implementation, Cuba inscribed these conditions in its Constitution.

During Roosevelt’s administration, the U.S. military intervened in Cuba multiple times. For instance, in 1906, when political unrest and economic instability threatened foreign investments and interests in Cuba, Roosevelt sent troops to restore order and protect American citizens. Similarly, the U.S. intervened in 1909 after a contested presidential election.

The Great White Fleet: Big Stick policy worldwide

Although the United States was focused in its vicinity, elements of Big Stick diplomacy were applied to other regions too.

The Great White Fleet was a naval expedition undertaken by the United States Navy from 1907 to 1909. It was comprised by 16 battleships painted white that embarked on a worldwide journey to demonstrate the United States’ power. The fleet’s primary objective was to project naval force across long distances, particularly in the Pacific and in the Atlantic.

This expedition introduced the U.S. as a major sea power and helped to avert a war against Japan because of the mistreatment of Japanese nationals in California. Tensions would come to an end when American sailors were warmly welcomed by the Japanese at the Yokohama port.

The Great White Fleet, because it projected power without resorting to the use of force, stands as the embodiment of Big Stick policy on a global scale.

Conclusion

Big Stick ideology was a fundamental aspect of Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy. It enabled the United States to assert its military prowess while maintaining peaceful and diplomatic relations with other states.

In its heyday, this policy did not go unchallenged. Some nations perceived the U.S. as an imperialistic power, and worried about the interference in the affairs of sovereign states. Additionally, there were Americans who believed that the government was risking unnecessary confrontations in Latin America.

Nonetheless, the pursuit of peace backed by military strength remains a tenet of the United States’ diplomacy. The deployment of troops abroad, the unwillingness to let go of the nuclear arsenal, and the “freedom of navigation” operations in the high-seas stand as a testment to the wisdom of Roosevelt’s ideas. Although the U.S. no longer intervenes in neighboring countries, the Big Stick policy has left an enduring legacy for it.