Asia, with its vast population of 4.6 billion, is a significant origin of global migration. In 2020, over 115 million international migrants were from Asia — a substantial number of them (69 million) relocated within the continent, marking a notable increase from 61 million in 2015. This rise in intraregional migration, from 35 million in 1990, reflects a broader trend of increasing Asian-born populations in Northern America and Europe. Specifically, migration to Northern America grew marginally to 17.5 million in 2020, while in Europe, it rose to 23 million. The migration from Asia to these western regions contributed to a total of 46 million Asian migrants living outside their home region by 2020.
Contrastingly, the influx of non-Asian-born migrants into Asia has been relatively low. Europeans form the largest group among these migrants, including those from the European part of the former Soviet Union now residing in Central Asia. African migrants also represent a significant group within Asia. India and China, Asia’s two most populous countries, have the highest numbers of citizens living abroad, yet these figures represent only a small percentage of their total populations. Notably, the United States hosts a considerable Chinese-born population, alongside other large Asian groups from India, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Bangladesh and the Syrian Arab Republic also have a considerable number of their citizens living abroad.
In the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, migrants form a major part of the national populations. For instance, in 2020, migrants accounted for 88% of the UAE’s population, around 73% in Kuwait, 77% in Qatar, and 55% in Bahrain. These migrants predominantly come from Africa, South Asia, and South-East Asia.
The impact of historical events is still evident in contemporary migration patterns. For example, there are many Pakistanis in India, and there are many Indians in Pakistan, due to the influence of the 1947 Partition of these countries.
In addition, Asian countries were among the first to implement travel restrictions related to COVID-19 in early 2020, with measures like screening arrivals and adopting quarantine protocols. These restrictions, initially more focused on international movement, eventually encompassed internal movements by mid-March 2020. Although the restrictions started to decline by mid-2020, intraregional travel controls in Asia remained stricter compared to other regions.
Remittance flows are a crucial aspect of Asia’s economy. In 2020, India and China received over USD 140 billion in remittances — India alone received USD 83 billion. Other recipients included the Philippines, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Remittances are vital for countries like Lebanon, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Nepal, where they constitute a big portion of the GDP. Meanwhile, the GCC countries, especially the UAE and Saudi Arabia, are major sources of remittances.
There is significant international displacement in Asia. The Syrian Arab Republic and Afghanistan were the top origin countries for refugees in 2020. The majority of them were hosted in neighboring countries, such as Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Pakistan, and Iran. Also, the withdrawal of allied troops from Afghanistan in mid-2021 further increased the number of Afghan refugees. Myanmar is another source of refugees, particularly the Rohingya, most of whom are hosted in its neighbor Bangladesh.
Disasters are a leading cause of internal displacement in Asia. For example, China and the Philippines experienced millions of displacements for this reason in 2020. Natural calamities like floods, landslides, and cyclones have also triggered mass displacements in Bangladesh, India, and Vietnam. Conflict is another factor, and the Syrian Arab Republic records the highest number of conflict-induced displacements. Afghanistan, Yemen, and other countries also experienced migration related to conflict. In particular, the situation in Yemen is especially severe due to additional challenges posed by intense rainy seasons.
Key Trends in the Middle East
Migrants in the Middle East faced numerous challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, including heightened health risks, economic hardships, and displacement. Overcrowded living conditions and limited access to healthcare in several Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries increased the risk of COVID-19 infection among migrants. The pandemic’s economic impact, including job losses and delayed payments, forced many migrants to return to their home countries. The Kafala system, which binds migrant workers to their employers, worsened their working and living conditions, particularly for domestic workers who were sometimes trapped with abusive employers during lockdowns. Additionally, irregular migrants in detention centers, notably in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, faced dire conditions, increasing their vulnerability to COVID-19. Border closures also left many migrants stranded, especially in the Gulf region and Yemen, where thousands attempting to cross into Saudi Arabia found themselves without basic necessities.
Conflicts and violence continue to be major causes of displacement in the Middle East. Ceasefire agreements in Iraq led to reduced displacements, but new offensives in Syria and Yemen drove large numbers from their homes. The 2020 Syrian Government offensive in Idlib resulted in massive displacements, the largest since the war began. The conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh between Armenia and Azerbaijan also led to displacement and casualties. Despite a ceasefire agreement signed in November 2020, many remained displaced and in need of humanitarian aid by the end of the year.
Climate change and natural disasters have compounded displacement challenges in the Middle East. Countries like Yemen, already grappling with conflict, faced additional displacement due to disasters like floods. In 2020, floods in Yemen displaced more people than conflict and violence. The situation in Yemen highlights the complexity of overlapping disaster and conflict-induced humanitarian crises. Countries like Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria have also experienced recurrent floods, worsening conditions for refugees and internally displaced persons. Additionally, slow-onset hazards like desertification, particularly in Syria, have contributed to displacement, possibly playing a role in triggering the country’s civil war.
The Middle East remains both an origin and a destination for refugees and asylum seekers. In 2020, Syria was the largest origin country of refugees globally, with nearly seven million Syrian refugees. Also, there was cross-border displacement in countries like Iraq. The region hosts a large number of refugees, primarily from within the Middle East. Lebanon and Jordan are among the top global hosts of refugees in proportion to their national populations, with several of them from Syria and the Palestinian Territories. Approximately 5.7 million Palestinian refugees, under the care of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), are also hosted within the Middle East, making it one of the world’s largest host regions for refugees.
Key Trends in Central Asia
Central Asia, heavily dependent on international remittances, witnessed a decline in remittance inflows in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was largely because of job losses, salary cuts, or forced unpaid leave experienced by migrant workers in key destination countries, notably the Russian Federation. This loss of income greatly affected countries like Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, where remittances constitute a substantial portion of their GDP. In 2020, remittances dropped by nearly 10% across Europe and Central Asia, with a steep decline in flows from Russia to Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. The Russian Federation remains the primary source of remittances and the most significant destination for migrants from Central Asia. The pandemic-induced border closures not only halted outward migration but also stranded thousands of migrants trying to return home, including those transiting through Kazakhstan.
Central Asia has also been facing the brunt of climate change, with increasing temperatures leading to sudden-onset disasters like severe floods. In 2020, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan experienced heavy rains and flooding, resulting in tens of thousands of new displacements. These environmental changes are expected to escalate the frequency and intensity of such disasters, posing a threat to livelihoods, especially in agriculture, and exacerbating food insecurity.
Most international migrants from Central Asia relocate to Russia, with nearly 5 million migrants from the region living there by the end of 2020. Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are the top origin countries for these migrants. Some of these migrants are workers, driven by unemployment and the pursuit of better wages and working conditions in Russia. Kazakhstan, with its resource-driven growing economy, has also emerged as a migration destination within the region.
Migration trends in Central Asia have traditionally been male-dominated, but there is a growing movement of female migrant workers, particularly to Russia. Women from Kyrgyzstan represent a substantial portion of these migrants, mostly working in the services sector. Similarly, Tajik women also make up a notable percentage of Tajik migrants in Russia. Factors driving emigration from Central Asia include not only economic reasons but also social issues like forced, early, and servile marriages. In Kyrgyzstan, for instance, “bride kidnapping” has been a contributing factor to emigration among women. While labor migration has been instrumental in reducing unemployment and supporting economies through remittances, it has also led to strains on family structures in the region.
Key Trends in Eastern Asia
During the pandemic, Eastern Asia witnessed an increase in xenophobia and discrimination against migrants, both within the region and globally. There were widespread reports of discrimination and even physical attacks against individuals perceived to be of Chinese descent, often wrongly associated with the spread of COVID-19. Within the subregion, migrants faced discrimination in various aspects such as quarantine requirements, mask rationing, and access to social services, often based solely on nationality. Travel restrictions and lockdowns further complicated the situation, leaving many migrants unable to return to their jobs abroad. Countries like Japan and the Republic of Korea, which had been working to increase the number of migrant workers to address labor shortages, experienced setbacks due to these restrictions.
China, home to one of the world’s largest transnational communities, is a major player in the global remittance landscape. In 2020, approximately 10 million Chinese international migrants were living in countries like Canada, Italy, Australia, Korea, Japan, the United States, and Singapore. China is one of the top recipients of international remittances, receiving nearly USD 60 billion in 2020, making it second only to India. Furthermore, China is also a large sender of remittances, reflecting its growing number of international migrants.
Eastern Asia is not only a major origin of international students but has also become an important destination for students from other regions. China leads as the largest source of international students, with the majority studying in North America. In the 2019–2020 academic year, there were about 372,000 Chinese students in the United States, primarily graduate students. The Republic of Korea and Japan are other countries in the subregion with a considerable number of students studying abroad. Conversely, countries like China, the Republic of Korea, and Japan have become attractive destinations for international students. Prior to the pandemic, the number of international students in these countries was rising, with most coming from other Asian countries and Africa.
The subregion has faced disaster-related displacements, particularly in China. In 2020, China experienced over 5 million new disaster displacements, the highest in five years and the largest globally. These displacements, largely due to flooding, led to numerous fatalities and substantial economic losses. Factors like land use and climate change have contributed to these disasters, with recent floods in China being caused by extreme rainfall. Japan also faced considerable disaster displacements, with about 186,000 new displacements recorded in 2020.
Key Trends in Southern Asia
The COVID-19 pandemic drastically altered migration patterns in Southern Asia, triggering the mass return of millions of migrant workers and internal migrations from urban to rural areas. As the pandemic unfolded in 2020, many migrants from this subregion lost their jobs or faced pay cuts, with some left homeless. Initially, many could not return home due to flight cancellations and unpreparedness of their home countries to handle such a large influx. However, repatriation efforts soon began, with India launching the Vande Bharat mission in May 2020, ultimately repatriating over 3 million Indians by the end of the year. Other countries like Nepal also saw a return of some of their citizens. This trend of returning migrants also led to a reverse migration within countries, notably in India, where many migrant workers in cities moved back to rural areas, inadvertently spreading COVID-19. The pandemic also severely disrupted the deployment of migrant workers from the region, with countries like India and Bangladesh experiencing sharp declines in outflows.
Southern Asia is highly vulnerable to both rapid- and slow-onset disasters, often leading to massive displacements. In 2020, the subregion accounted for nearly a third of all new global displacements caused by disasters, with 9.3 million new displacements. The subregion is increasingly affected by climate change, resulting in rising temperatures, extreme weather events, torrential rains, and rising sea levels. Cyclone Amphan in 2020, which hit Bangladesh and India, was a major disaster event, necessitating the evacuation of millions. The subregion also faces the highest risk of flood displacement and is increasingly vulnerable to high temperatures.
Labor migration is a key characteristic of Southern Asia, leading to some of the world’s largest inflows of international remittances. High unemployment and low wages in the subregion drive many South Asians to work in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. A large number of international migrants in these Gulf countries, particularly in the UAE and Saudi Arabia, are from India and Bangladesh. India, with the largest number of international emigrants globally, is also the top recipient of international remittances, receiving USD 83 billion in 2020. Pakistan and Bangladesh are also among the top global recipients of remittances, both witnessing increases in 2020, contrary to projections.
The protracted conflicts and violence in some Southern Asian countries continue to generate large numbers of refugees and internally displaced persons. Afghanistan, after more than two decades of conflict, had 2.6 million refugees by the end of 2020, making it the third largest origin country for cross-border displacement. Most Afghan refugees are hosted in Pakistan and Iran. Internal conflict and violence in Afghanistan have also resulted in a large number of internally displaced persons, with 3.5 million Afghans displaced within the country by the end of 2020. Despite peace efforts, violence escalated, including terrorist attacks targeting civilians and brutal assaults on children, such as the May 2021 bombing outside an Afghan Hazara school. Other countries in the subregion, like Pakistan, Iran, and Bangladesh, continue to host large numbers of refugees, collectively sheltering 13% of the global total of people displaced across borders.
Key Trends in South-East Asia
In South-East Asia, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted migration and mobility, and migrants were disproportionately affected. By June 2021, the subregion had reported nearly 35 million COVID-19 cases, with the Philippines being the most affected. Countries implemented various travel restrictions, including quarantine measures and border closures, impacting both international and domestic travel. Many low-skilled migrant workers faced quarantine in overcrowded dormitories, heightening their risk of contracting COVID-19. Women migrant workers were especially impacted by lockdowns and travel restrictions. As countries like Thailand closed their borders, thousands of migrant workers from neighboring countries such as Cambodia, Myanmar, and Laos hurried to return home. Restrictions also led to an unprecedented halt in mobility, with Filipino nurses bound for countries like Germany, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, and the UK unable to leave. Countries like Vietnam and the Philippines initiated support systems to assist stranded migrant workers.
Religious and ethnic tensions have driven internal and cross-border displacements in the subregion. The Rohingya, mainly hosted in Bangladesh, represent the largest displaced stateless population globally. The situation worsened following increased violence in Myanmar’s Rakhine State in 2017 and further displacements after Myanmar’s 2020 elections. The Myanmar military takeover in February 2021 intensified conflicts, threatening the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement and leading to more displacements. By the end of 2020, Bangladesh hosted over 860,000 refugees, mostly Rohingya, with a large number being children. Malaysia and other countries in the subregion also host a myriad of refugees. In 2021, concerns arose over Malaysia’s decision to deport over 1,000 migrants to Myanmar, including vulnerable individuals and unaccompanied children.
Environmental disasters are a major cause of migration in South-East Asia. In 2020, countries like the Philippines, Vietnam, and Indonesia experienced significant disaster displacements. The Philippines alone recorded 4.4 million displacements, primarily due to typhoons, the eruption of Mount Taal, and other natural disasters. These three countries collectively faced over 6 million displacements in 2020, ranking among the top globally for disaster displacements.
Labor migration is a key aspect of migration in South-East Asia, with countries like the Philippines being major recipients of international remittances. In 2020, the Philippines received USD 35 billion in remittances, mainly from the United States, making it the fourth largest recipient globally. Despite the pandemic, remittances remained resilient, declining by less than 1%. Vietnam also ranked among the top global remittance recipients. However, many labor migrants from the subregion, particularly those in informal sectors, face various abuses and exploitation, including forced labor.
Irregular migration, often facilitated by smuggling networks, is prevalent in South-East Asia. The region serves as an origin, transit, and destination for irregular migrants. Migrant smuggling mainly occurs along two key routes: Malaysia is a major destination for migrants from the Philippines, Bangladesh, and Indonesia; and Thailand is a major destination for those from Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos. Human trafficking is also a relevant issue, given that many victims are trafficked for labor and sexual exploitation. South-East Asia accounts for 75% of trafficking victims within Asia.
Conclusion
Throughout Asia and the Middle East, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the lives of many people, particularly low-skilled workers. Yet the region kept its relevance in terms of both international and internal migration, because many of its inhabitants are migrants. There are not as many migrants from other regions in Asia and the Middle East, but there are several international students there, staying on a temporary basis. Especially in certain countries in the Middle East, migrants comprise the vast majority of the population, yet remain deprived of the right to adequate standards of living. Finally, both conflicts and natural disasters are an important driver of forced displacement in Asia. Overall, contemporary Asian migration flows are varied, complex, and likely to grow over the next decades.
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