Environment
Climate COPs: How UN Climate Conferences Work
Climate COPs bring UNFCCC parties together to negotiate rules, finance, national targets, adaptation, and implementation of the Paris Agreement.
Arctic: Climate Change, Sea Routes and Sovereignty Disputes
Arctic ice loss intensifies disputes over navigation, continental shelves, military presence, Indigenous rights and circumpolar governance.
Ramsar Convention: Wetlands and Protection
The Ramsar Convention links wetland conservation and wise use to the Ramsar List, national planning, and cooperation among states.
Convention on Biological Diversity
The CBD organizes conservation, sustainable use, benefit sharing, and global targets for biodiversity.
International Climate Regime: Kyoto, Paris and Finance
The climate regime links UNFCCC rules, Kyoto targets, Paris pledges, carbon markets, and finance to the North-South equity dispute.
Amazon Cooperation Treaty: Environment and Sovereignty
The Amazon Cooperation Treaty gives eight Amazonian states a framework to defend sovereignty and coordinate sustainable-development policy.
Lithium: Supply Chains and International Politics
Lithium supply chains link battery manufacturing, critical minerals policy, industrial strategy and geopolitical risk.
Earth Summit (Rio 1992): Outcomes, Agenda 21 and Legacy
The 1992 Earth Summit adopted Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration and climate and biodiversity treaties.