Migration within Africa and to other regions has been a notable trend, with 21 million Africans living in another African country in 2020, a rise from 18 million in 2015. The number of Africans living outside the continent also increased, with the majority residing in Europe, Asia, and Northern America. Interestingly, only about 2 million migrants from outside Africa moved to the continent, coming primarily from Asia and Europe.
North African countries have the highest numbers of emigrants, with Egypt leading, followed by Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Somalia, and Algeria. South Africa is the top destination for immigrants within Africa, although its immigrant population decreased slightly from 2015 to 2020. Other countries like Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Seychelles, and Libya also have high immigrant populations relative to their total populations.
The COVID-19 pandemic impacted travel within Africa and to other regions. Countries quickly implemented international travel restrictions, focusing initially on screening arrivals. Restrictions peaked between March and June 2020, then started easing by mid-2021. Movement restrictions within each country were also common but less widespread. By late 2020, health measures like quarantines and COVID-19 tests became more prevalent than travel restrictions, particularly within Africa.
Remittances play a crucial role in Africa’s economy. In 2020, Egypt, Nigeria, Morocco, Ghana, and Kenya were the top recipients, with Egypt and Nigeria receiving over $15 billion each. Remittances account for a considerable portion of GDP in some countries, like Somalia and South Sudan. Despite a pandemic-induced decrease in 2020, remittances to Africa, excluding Nigeria, actually grew.
Displacement within Africa and from the continent is a relevant issue. Most refugees and asylum seekers are hosted in neighboring countries. South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Somalia are the largest sources of refugees. Uganda is the largest host country in Africa, mainly hosting refugees from South Sudan and the DRC. Conflict and natural disasters are the primary drivers of displacement, with the DRC and Ethiopia experiencing the most conflict-related displacements in 2020. Somalia and Ethiopia also faced substantial disaster-related displacements, often exacerbated by ongoing conflicts.
Key Trends in West and Central Africa
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted migration in West and Central Africa. The region, known for high levels of intraregional migration, primarily for economic purposes, faced a sudden halt due to travel restrictions and border closures. This led to a nearly 50% drop in migration flows at key transit points between January and April 2020. The closure of borders also stranded thousands of migrants, including seasonal workers and herders. The suspension of the free movement arrangement by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) further complicated the situation. These travel restrictions not only impacted human mobility but also trade and livelihoods — particularly in the informal sector which is a major employer in the region. With formal migration channels closed, some migrants turned to irregular channels. Yet, due to tighter border controls, there was a temporary decrease in irregular migration flows to Europe.
The crisis in the Central Sahel region, encompassing Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali, has led to a humanitarian disaster. The increase in violence, driven by factors like competition over natural resources, underdevelopment, and poverty, has resulted in massive internal displacements and deaths. Climate change has exacerbated this situation, causing unpredictable weather patterns, prolonged droughts, and severe flooding, leading to further displacement and increased violence over natural resources.
Violent extremism continues to be a major issue in the region, with groups like Boko Haram intensifying their activities. The expansion of extremist groups has been facilitated by factors such as smuggling networks, porous borders, and exploitation of ethnic tensions. These groups have caused displacement, deaths, and setbacks in development. In Central Africa, new coalitions of armed groups have similarly had devastating impacts, with portions of the population in countries like the Central African Republic becoming refugees or internally displaced persons.
Women and girls make up a sizeable portion of migrants in the region and face unique gender-based risks. They migrate for various reasons, including economic opportunities and family reunification. Despite their increasing numbers, female migrants often find themselves in precarious employment conditions, facing challenges like sexual exploitation, violence, and low wages.
Key Trends in Eastern and Southern Africa
The COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted migrants, including refugees, in Eastern and Southern Africa. Many countries closed their borders and restricted movement, causing a sharp decline in migration. Uganda, hosting a large refugee population, ceased its open-door policy, leaving many without protection. Refugees in crowded camps and remote areas faced challenges accessing COVID-19 testing and treatment. The pandemic also led to stranded migrants and impacted irregular migration. There was an initial decline in irregular migration to Europe, but it increased again by mid-2020. The Horn of Africa saw a drop in migration to Gulf countries, with many migrants returning from Yemen due to lost income and increased human rights abuses. The pandemic also disrupted peace processes, prolonging conflicts that drive displacement. In Southern Africa, the pandemic fueled xenophobia against migrants, who suffered from socioeconomic hardships and lack of access to support services. Some countries included migrants in COVID-19 health measures, but many, especially irregular migrants, were excluded.
Labour migration is central in Eastern and Southern Africa, with increased intraregional migration driven by the growth of migrant workers. Efforts like the East African Common Market Protocol have facilitated cross-border work, and new protocols could further boost migration. Irregular migration for economic reasons is also common. The Southern African Development Community has seen a rise in international migrant workers. Traditional emigration destinations from East Africa include Northern America and Europe, with the United States and the United Kingdom hosting large Kenyan diasporas. Gulf States are increasingly popular destinations for migrant workers from Uganda, Kenya, and Ethiopia. Remittances, particularly to countries like Kenya, Somalia, and Uganda, form a considerable part of the subregion’s economy.
Terrorist attacks and ongoing conflicts in Southern and Eastern Africa continue to drive displacement. Northern Mozambique has seen a sharp rise in displacement due to violent attacks, and Eastern Africa faces sporadic violence and conflicts, with Somalia and South Sudan experiencing significant displacement. The conflict in Tigray, Ethiopia, has led to massive displacement both within the country and across borders. Eastern Africa is both a source and host of large refugee populations, with South Sudan and Somalia being major origins of refugees. Uganda remains one of the largest host countries. Some countries in the region maintain open-door policies and have progressive refugee frameworks.
Extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and storms have exacerbated livelihood challenges and displacement. Countries like Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia, and South Sudan faced severe floods and locust outbreaks, while Mozambique dealt with the aftermath of cyclones. Climate effects, including La Niña-like conditions and droughts, have affected countries like Tanzania, impacting communities reliant on rain-fed agriculture and contributing to migration drivers.
Key Trends in North Africa
COVID-19 and its related movement restrictions have reshaped migration in North Africa, impacting irregular migration patterns, causing involuntary immobility, forced returns, and discrimination. The region, a key transit point for African migrants en route to Europe, saw a decline in migrants using the Mediterranean Sea route in 2020, although the Central Mediterranean route experienced an increase. The pandemic also worsened conditions for migrants in detention, especially in Libya, where overcrowding and poor sanitation heightened COVID-19 risks. Border closures and suspended return programs left many migrants stranded, and some were forcibly returned, often leaving them in dire situations. The United Nations Network on Migration responded by calling for the suspension of forced returns during the pandemic. Countries like Algeria, in collaboration with origin countries and organizations like IOM, facilitated the safe return of stranded migrants. The financial impact of the pandemic was severe, with many migrants losing their income and facing discrimination and exclusion from essential services, though countries like Egypt included migrants in their healthcare responses. Women migrants faced disproportionate effects, including increased income loss and risks of sexual exploitation.
North Africa is a major recipient of international remittances, with a significant emigrant population. Emigration is common from Maghreb countries like Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. In 2020, over 5 million migrants from these countries were in Europe, while Egypt’s migrants primarily headed to Gulf Cooperation Council States. Despite the pandemic, remittances increased, particularly to Egypt and Morocco, accounting for a big portion of their GDP. The European Union’s plans to enhance legal migration pathways could further increase remittances to the region.
Conflict and violence have led to substantial displacement within North Africa. Libya, plagued by conflict and political instability, has seen hundreds of thousands displaced, with over a million needing humanitarian assistance. Sudan faces similar challenges with violent conflicts in areas like Kordofan and Darfur, hosting a large number of refugees and IDPs. Protection challenges for migrants are widespread, especially for women and girls, who face abuse and exploitation. Conditions in detention centers, particularly in Libya, are dire, with migrants facing numerous abuses and often being denied access to international aid.
North Africa is a crucial transit and departure point for migrants heading to Europe, with thousands using the Central and Western Mediterranean routes. Despite the pandemic, there was an increase in arrivals in Europe in 2020. The journeys are perilous, with many migrants relying on smugglers and facing abuse and trafficking risks. In 2020, a significant number of migrants were reported dead or missing at sea. The routes used for smuggling vary, with the Western route being popular among West Africans and the Eastern route used mainly by East Africans.
Conclusion
Throughout Africa, the COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically reshaped migration patterns, impacting millions of migrants, including refugees and asylum seekers. Each region of the continent experienced unique challenges and changes. In the East and in the South, the pandemic led to heightened displacement and livelihood challenges due to conflicts and extreme weather events. In the West and in the Center of the continent, the health crisis disrupted intraregional migration and exposed migrants to increased risks, including xenophobia. Meanwhile, in North Africa, there were changes in migration patterns to Europe. Despite these adversities, many African countries continue to be a vital corridor for those seeking new opportunities, particularly in Europe.
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