DiploWiki

The International Politics of the Holy See

This image is an expansive aerial photograph of St. Peter’s Square (Piazza San Pietro), the grand open plaza in front of St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City. The viewpoint is from an elevated position, likely from the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica, looking outward across the square and deep into the city of Rome. The square itself is oval-shaped, enclosed by two sweeping colonnades consisting of four rows of massive, white stone columns. These colonnades, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, embrace the open space and are topped by statues of saints and religious figures. In the center of the square stands a tall ancient Egyptian obelisk, surrounded by a circular pattern of stones on the ground, with two large fountains symmetrically placed on either side. Hundreds of tiny human figures, tourists, and pilgrims are scattered throughout the square, walking or gathering in small groups, giving a sense of the plaza’s vastness. The architecture is baroque, with warm beige, yellow, and cream tones dominating the buildings. The foreground features the ornate balustrade and rooftop statuary of the basilica, with large, white stone statues standing atop the façade and overlooking the square. Beyond St. Peter’s Square, a wide avenue (Via della Conciliazione) stretches straight ahead, lined by historic buildings and leading the eye toward the distant urban sprawl of Rome. The cityscape is densely packed with tan and brown buildings, interspersed with patches of greenery, tree-lined streets, and, in the distance, the winding Tiber River. The image conveys the scale, symmetry, and historical richness of the Vatican and its urban context.
Aerial view of the St. Peter’s Square, in the Vatican. Image by Staselnik, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.

The Holy See occupies a unique position in international law and global affairs, functioning as both the central governing body of the Roman Catholic Church and a sovereign entity with extensive diplomatic influence. It has maintained its international legal personality and engaged in global diplomacy for centuries, even when deprived of territorial sovereignty. Today, the Holy See maintains formal diplomatic relations with nearly every country in the world, participates actively in numerous international organizations, and signs binding international agreements such as concordats. Leveraging its spiritual authority, it exerts considerable soft power in terms of peace mediation, interreligious dialogue, humanitarian relief and advocacy for human rights and environmental protection. The diplomatic initiatives of the Holy See demonstrate its enduring commitment to fostering dialogue and cooperation in a rapidly changing world.

Summary

  • The Holy See governs the Roman Catholic Church and acts as a sovereign entity in global affairs.
  • It holds a unique sui generis international legal status, distinct from the Vatican City State.
  • Its sovereignty is historically recognized and not dependent on territory.
  • It currently maintains formal diplomatic relations with 184 sovereign states.
  • It enters into binding international agreements, including specific treaties called concordats.
  • It actively participates in multilateral diplomacy, notably as a UN Permanent Observer State.
  • It adheres to significant international conventions on human rights and humanitarian law.
  • It exercises global influence through peace mediation, interreligious dialogue, and humanitarian relief efforts.
  • Its advocacy focuses strongly on human rights, including for migrants and refugees, and environmental protection, as seen in the Laudato si’ encyclical.
  • Recently, the Holy See’s diplomatic efforts include improving its relations with China and establishing ties with Oman in 2023.

The Status of the Holy See in International Law

The Holy See represents the central governing body of the Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Pope as the Bishop of Rome. It is essential to differentiate the Holy See from the Vatican City State. Although sometimes confused, they are distinct entities under international law. Historically, the Pope ruled over significant territories known as the Papal States. However, following the unification of Italy, these territories were lost in 1870. Despite becoming landless for nearly sixty years, the Holy See continued to exercise its international legal personality, maintaining diplomatic relations and acting on the world stage. This period demonstrated that its sovereignty was not intrinsically tied to territory.

The situation was formally resolved in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy. This agreement recognized the Holy See’s sovereignty in the international arena and created the Vatican City State. The Vatican City State serves as a small, independent territory designed to guarantee the Holy See’s freedom and autonomy in its global mission, providing a physical location but distinct from the Holy See itself, which acts as the governing entity of the worldwide Church.

International law widely acknowledges the Holy See as a sovereign entity with international legal personality, meaning it possesses rights and duties comparable to those of states. Its status is frequently termed sui generis — unique, or “of its own kind”. This reflects its distinctive characteristics: it doesn’t meet the standard criteria of statehood primarily based on territory and population, yet it enjoys sovereign recognition. Its legal personality stems fundamentally from its long-standing historical role, its global spiritual authority, and its governance of the Catholic Church worldwide, rather than from the territorial base provided by Vatican City State.

This image captures a ceremonial parade of the Pontifical Swiss Guard, the elite security force of Vatican City. The photograph is taken outdoors, possibly near the Vatican or during an event in a European city, as suggested by the surrounding buildings and trees. The guards are marching in formation along a paved pathway, flanked by lush green grass and large leafy trees in the background. The sky appears overcast, with diffused daylight illuminating the scene. The Swiss Guards wear their iconic, vividly colored uniforms—vertical stripes of deep blue, red, and yellow, with high, white collars and wide sleeves gathered at the wrists with red cuffs. Each guard wears black shoes, white gloves, and a flat-brimmed, black steel helmet adorned with a large red plume. Their faces are solemn and focused as they march in perfect step. Leading the group, a guard carries a large yellow and white flag—the colors of the Vatican City flag—held upright as a symbol of their duty and allegiance. The formation behind him consists of rows of guards, all maintaining disciplined posture and bearing. In the background, multi-story buildings painted in light pastel colors and white, typical of European architecture, are visible, with some onlookers or passersby partially visible at the edges. The overall atmosphere is formal, ceremonial, and historic, showcasing the unique attire and discipline of the world’s oldest standing military unit.
The Swiss Guards who protect the Pope and his palace. Image by Etxaburu, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

The Diplomatic Network of the Holy See

The Holy See’s recognized status as a sovereign entity under international law furnishes it with the full capacity to establish formal diplomatic relations with states and other international actors, as well as the authority to enter into binding international agreements. A distinctive category of bilateral treaty concluded by the Holy See is the concordat. These formal agreements are negotiated with individual states to define the legal status and rights of the Catholic Church within that nation’s territory, addressing matters such as religious freedom, the appointment of bishops, Church property, education, and marriage recognition. Concordats represent significant historical and legal arrangements in Church-State relations, and depending on a country’s constitutional framework, their provisions can sometimes interact with or influence domestic law. Beyond concordats, the Holy See engages in a wide spectrum of international agreements, comparable to those entered into by states, covering diverse areas of mutual interest and global concern.

The operational center for the Holy See’s foreign policy and diplomatic activities is the Secretariat of State, particularly its Section for Relations with States and International Organizations, which functions similarly to a foreign ministry. Through this apparatus, the Holy See maintains an extensive global diplomatic network. As of early 2025, it enjoys full diplomatic relations with 184 sovereign states, spanning nearly the entire globe and including nations with vastly different political systems and religious demographics. Additionally, it maintains formal diplomatic relations with the European Union and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. The breadth of these relations is reflected by the presence in Rome of approximately 90 resident Embassies accredited specifically to the Holy See. Papal diplomatic representatives accredited to foreign governments and international organizations are known as Apostolic Nuncios. These diplomats hold a dual role: they serve as the ambassador of the Holy See to the host state, conducting traditional diplomatic functions, while also acting as the Pope’s representative to the hierarchy and community of the Catholic Church within that country, serving as a link between the local Church and Rome.

In addition to its bilateral engagements, the Holy See is an active participant in multilateral diplomacy. It holds the status of a Permanent Observer State at the United Nations, a position it has occupied since 1964. This unique status allows the Holy See extensive participation rights: its delegates can attend and address meetings of the General Assembly, the Security Council (when relevant), and the Economic and Social Council; they contribute to drafting and negotiating international treaties under UN auspices on an equal footing with member states; and they follow the work of various UN bodies closely through dedicated Permanent Observer Missions in New York and Geneva. The Holy See has chosen observer status over full UN membership primarily to maintain its position of political neutrality, allowing it to engage on humanitarian and moral issues without being drawn into specific political alignments or disputes. Furthermore, its engagement extends to numerous other international bodies. It is a full member of organizations such as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). It also holds observer status in many others, including the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and UNESCO.

The Holy See’s commitment to the international legal order is further evidenced by its adherence to a substantial number of multilateral treaties. It is a party to significant international conventions across various fields, including cornerstone agreements in international humanitarian law (such as the Geneva Conventions), arms control and disarmament (like the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons), human rights, cultural heritage protection (including the World Heritage Convention), intellectual property, and communications regulations. Regarding human rights specifically, the Holy See has ratified several core UN treaties, notably the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). By becoming a party to these instruments, the Holy See accepts the obligation to uphold their standards and submits its relevant practices to periodic review.

The Global Influence of the Holy See

The Holy See leverages its unique standing and moral authority to exert influence in international affairs, often acting as a facilitator for peace, an advocate for human dignity and the common good, and a promoter of dialogue. One of its most recognized roles is in diplomatic mediation and the quiet promotion of peace negotiations. History provides compelling examples of its success in this arena. The intervention requested by both Argentina and Chile in the late 1970s averted a potential war over the Beagle Channel; through years of patient mediation led by Cardinal Antonio Samorè under Pope John Paul II’s mandate, the parties reached the landmark 1984 Treaty of Peace and Friendship. Similarly, the Holy See, particularly under Pope Francis, played an indispensable behind-the-scenes role in fostering communication between the United States and Cuba, utilizing its diplomatic channels and “good offices” to host crucial meetings in 2014 that directly contributed to the normalization of relations between the two long-estranged nations. While direct mediation successes depend heavily on the willingness of conflicting parties, the Holy See consistently advocates for dialogue, negotiation, and peaceful resolution of conflicts globally, often referred to as practicing a “diplomacy of hope”.

This indoor image documents a formal diplomatic meeting between Pope Francis and Volodymyr Zelensky, the President of Ukraine. The scene takes place in a richly decorated room with warm yellow and gold wallpaper featuring intricate patterns. The floor is covered with a polished, reddish-brown and white checkered marble tile, reflecting the light that pours in from a tall window draped with white curtains in the background. Pope Francis stands to the right, dressed in his traditional white papal cassock, with a matching zucchetto (skullcap) and cape. He is smiling warmly and extending his right hand in a handshake to President Zelensky, who stands to the left, wearing a dark black suit, white shirt, and black tie. Zelensky is also smiling, leaning slightly forward in a gesture of respect. Between and behind them, a cameraman dressed in a black suit records the moment with a large professional video camera. Another man in a dark suit stands further back to the right, and a member of the clergy in a brown habit (possibly a Franciscan friar) stands closer behind the Pope, observing the interaction. The room’s atmosphere is formal and diplomatic, characterized by mutual respect and a sense of occasion. The lighting is bright and natural, casting soft shadows and highlighting the expressions and gestures of the two main figures. The setting and the presence of media and attendants underscore the importance of this high-level meeting between the leader of the Catholic Church and the President of Ukraine.
Pope Francis meeting with Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelensky in the context of the Russo-Ukrainian War. Image from the website of the Presidency of Ukraine, licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Closely linked to its peacebuilding efforts is the Holy See’s dedicated work in promoting interreligious dialogue. Recognizing that understanding and collaboration between different faiths are essential for global peace and stability, Popes and Vatican dicasteries (departments) have increasingly prioritized building bridges with leaders and communities of other world religions. This involves organizing joint conferences, issuing shared declarations against violence and extremism, engaging in theological discussions, and fostering cooperative projects aimed at promoting shared values like peace, justice, and environmental stewardship. These efforts aim to counteract religiously motivated conflict and harness the positive potential of diverse faiths working together for the common good.

Advocacy on pressing global issues forms another cornerstone of the Holy See’s international activity, frequently centered on the defense of human dignity. This includes consistent calls for the universal recognition and protection of fundamental human rights, with a particular emphasis on religious freedom for all people everywhere. Under Pope Francis, the plight of migrants, refugees, and victims of human trafficking has received sustained attention. Drawing often on his own family background as the son of immigrants, he has repeatedly urged nations to adopt more welcoming and integration-focused policies, condemning xenophobia and indifference, and stressing the moral obligation to assist those fleeing war, poverty, or persecution. The Holy See actively supported the development of the UN’s Global Compacts for Migration and Refugees, seeking to embed principles of human dignity and shared responsibility into international frameworks governing human mobility.

The Holy See’s advocacy extends significantly to environmental concerns, powerfully articulated in Pope Francis’s 2015 encyclical letter, Laudato si’, On Care for Our Common Home. This document presented a comprehensive moral and spiritual framework for understanding environmental challenges, arguing for an “integral ecology” that connects the well-being of the planet with social justice and human flourishing. It critiqued consumerism and irresponsible development, called for urgent action on climate change and biodiversity loss, and urged a global shift towards more sustainable lifestyles and economies. Laudato si’ significantly raised the profile of environmental issues within the Catholic Church and contributed a distinct ethical voice to international climate negotiations and sustainability discussions, emphasizing that care for the earth is inseparable from care for humanity, especially the poor.

Beyond diplomatic pronouncements, the Holy See inspires and supports vast networks of humanitarian activity undertaken by Catholic organizations worldwide. While the Holy See itself may provide direct emergency aid through papal charities, its broader impact lies in animating the global work of entities like Caritas Internationalis: a confederation of Catholic relief, development, and social service organizations operating in over 200 countries and territories. The Holy See also oversees numerous religious orders dedicated to healthcare, education, and social services. These efforts provide essential assistance to vulnerable populations affected by conflict, natural disasters, poverty, and disease, representing a significant practical manifestation of the Holy See’s concern for human welfare on a global scale.

Furthermore, the Holy See engages in a form of cultural diplomacy through its unique institutions. The Vatican Apostolic Library and the Vatican Secret Archives house invaluable collections documenting centuries of human history, art, and culture, serving as major centers for international scholarly research. The Vatican Museums attract millions of visitors from around the world, showcasing unparalleled artistic heritage. Various Pontifical Academies bring together international experts in fields ranging from sciences to social sciences and life, fostering dialogue between faith and reason on contemporary issues. These institutions facilitate cultural exchange and intellectual engagement, contributing to the Holy See’s presence in the global cultural landscape.

In terms of recent specific diplomatic engagements, the relationship with the People’s Republic of China remains a key focus. The 2018 Provisional Agreement on the appointment of bishops, which has been extended multiple times (most recently in October 2024 for a four-year period), continues to guide efforts towards normalizing the life of the Catholic Church in China, although it remains a delicate process and formal diplomatic ties have not been established. In fact, the Holy See still maintains formal diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan), complex geopolitical situation. A significant recent step in expanding its diplomatic reach was the establishment of full diplomatic relations with the Sultanate of Oman in February 2023, reflecting a continued effort to build bridges and foster dialogue, particularly within the Islamic world.

Conclusion

The Holy See’s legal status and diplomatic activities set it apart as a singular entity in international law, recognized for its robust engagement with the global community. Its sovereignty enables it to maintain a vast diplomatic network, shape international agreements, and contribute meaningfully to the work of multilateral organizations. Through mediation in conflicts, advocacy for the vulnerable, promotion of interfaith understanding, and support for humanitarian and cultural initiatives, the Holy See continually demonstrates its capacity to influence world affairs beyond the confines of traditional statehood. As it navigates complex geopolitical landscapes, its commitment to dialogue, peace, and the common good remains steadfast. The Holy See’s diplomatic activities ensure that it will continue to be a prominent and respected voice on the international stage, engaging with pressing global challenges while upholding its enduring values.

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