The International Politics of the Holy See

This image is an expansive aerial photograph of St. Peter’s Square (Piazza San Pietro), the grand open plaza in front of St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City. The viewpoint is from an elevated position, likely from the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica, looking outward across the square and deep into the city of Rome. The square itself is oval-shaped, enclosed by two sweeping colonnades consisting of four rows of massive, white stone columns. These colonnades, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, embrace the open space and are topped by statues of saints and religious figures. In the center of the square stands a tall ancient Egyptian obelisk, surrounded by a circular pattern of stones on the ground, with two large fountains symmetrically placed on either side. Hundreds of tiny human figures, tourists, and pilgrims are scattered throughout the square, walking or gathering in small groups, giving a sense of the plaza’s vastness. The architecture is baroque, with warm beige, yellow, and cream tones dominating the buildings. The foreground features the ornate balustrade and rooftop statuary of the basilica, with large, white stone statues standing atop the façade and overlooking the square. Beyond St. Peter’s Square, a wide avenue (Via della Conciliazione) stretches straight ahead, lined by historic buildings and leading the eye toward the distant urban sprawl of Rome. The cityscape is densely packed with tan and brown buildings, interspersed with patches of greenery, tree-lined streets, and, in the distance, the winding Tiber River. The image conveys the scale, symmetry, and historical richness of the Vatican and its urban context. — Aerial view of the St. Peter’s Square, in the Vatican. Image by Staselnik, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.

The Holy See occupies a unique position in international law and global affairs. The institution is both the central governing body of the Roman Catholic Church and a sovereign entity with extensive diplomatic influence. The Holy See has maintained international legal personality and practiced global diplomacy for centuries, even when it lacked territorial sovereignty. Under Pope Leo XIV, elected in May 2025, it continues to maintain formal diplomatic relations with nearly every country in the world. Its international role includes participation in organizations and binding agreements such as concordats. Vatican diplomats use soft power by mediating disputes and keeping interreligious dialogue open. Catholic networks give that diplomacy a humanitarian channel, while papal advocacy frames rights claims in moral language. These diplomatic initiatives show how the Holy See uses spiritual authority to promote cooperation in global politics.

Summary

The Holy See governs the Roman Catholic Church and acts as a sovereign entity in global affairs.
It holds a unique sui generis international legal status, distinct from the Vatican City State.
Its sovereignty is historically recognized and not dependent on territory.
It currently maintains formal diplomatic relations with 184 states, plus the European Union and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.
It enters into binding international agreements, including specific treaties called concordats.
It actively participates in multilateral diplomacy, notably as a UN Permanent Observer State.
It adheres to significant international conventions on human rights and humanitarian law.
It exercises global influence through peace mediation, interreligious dialogue, and humanitarian relief efforts.
Its advocacy focuses strongly on human rights, including for migrants and refugees, and environmental protection, as seen in the Laudato si’ encyclical.
Recent diplomatic files include Pope Leo XIV’s pontificate, the four-year extension of the China bishops agreement in 2024, and relations with Oman since 2023.

The Status of the Holy See in International Law

The Holy See represents the central governing body of the Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Pope as the Bishop of Rome. International law treats the Holy See as distinct from the Vatican City State. Historically, the Pope ruled over significant territories known as the Papal States. However, following the unification of Italy, those territories were lost in 1870. The Holy See then remained without territory for nearly sixty years, yet it continued to exercise international legal personality. During that period, the Holy See maintained diplomatic relations and acted on the world stage. The loss of territory showed that Holy See sovereignty was not intrinsically tied to a territorial base.

The situation was formally resolved in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy. The treaty recognized the Holy See’s sovereignty in the international arena and created the Vatican City State.

The Vatican City State provides a physical base, while the Holy See remains the governing entity of the worldwide Church. The city-state exists to guarantee the Holy See’s freedom and autonomy in its global mission.

International law widely acknowledges the Holy See as a sovereign entity with international legal personality. The Holy See possesses rights and duties comparable to those of states. Its status is frequently termed sui generis — unique, or “of its own kind”. The Holy See does not meet the standard criteria of statehood based mainly on territory and population, yet it enjoys sovereign recognition. Its legal personality rests on historical continuity and global spiritual authority rather than ordinary territorial statehood.

This image captures a ceremonial parade of the Pontifical Swiss Guard, the elite security force of Vatican City. The photograph is taken outdoors, possibly near the Vatican or during an event in a European city, as suggested by the surrounding buildings and trees. The guards are marching in formation along a paved pathway, flanked by lush green grass and large leafy trees in the background. The sky appears overcast, with diffused daylight illuminating the scene. The Swiss Guards wear their iconic, vividly colored uniforms—vertical stripes of deep blue, red, and yellow, with high, white collars and wide sleeves gathered at the wrists with red cuffs. Each guard wears black shoes, white gloves, and a flat-brimmed, black steel helmet adorned with a large red plume. Their faces are solemn and focused as they march in perfect step. Leading the group, a guard carries a large yellow and white flag—the colors of the Vatican City flag—held upright as a symbol of their duty and allegiance. The formation behind him consists of rows of guards, all maintaining disciplined posture and bearing. In the background, multi-story buildings painted in light pastel colors and white, typical of European architecture, are visible, with some onlookers or passersby partially visible at the edges. The overall atmosphere is formal, ceremonial, and historic, showcasing the unique attire and discipline of the world’s oldest standing military unit. — The Swiss Guards who protect the Pope and his palace. Image by Etxaburu, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

The Diplomatic Network of the Holy See

The Holy See’s recognized status as a sovereign entity under international law gives it capacity to establish diplomatic relations with states and other international actors.

That status gives the Holy See authority to enter into binding international agreements. A distinctive category of bilateral treaty concluded by the Holy See is the concordat. Concordats define the legal status and rights of the Catholic Church inside a state’s territory. These agreements may address religious freedom, bishop appointments, Church property, education and marriage recognition. Because concordats shape Church-State relations, they can influence domestic law depending on a country’s constitutional framework. Beyond concordats, the Holy See signs agreements on mutual interests and global concerns.

The operational center for the Holy See’s foreign policy and diplomatic activities is the Secretariat of State, particularly its Section for Relations with States and International Organizations. The Secretariat functions similarly to a foreign ministry.

Through this apparatus, the Holy See maintains an extensive global diplomatic network. According to the Holy See Press Office’s January 2026 diplomatic note, the Holy See currently maintains full diplomatic relations with 184 states, plus the European Union and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.

The same note counted 93 embassy chancelleries accredited to the Holy See with headquarters in Rome. These relations span nearly the entire globe and include states with very different political systems and religious demographics. Papal diplomatic representatives accredited to foreign governments and international organizations are known as Apostolic Nuncios. Nuncios act as ambassadors of the Holy See to host states and represent the Pope to the Catholic hierarchy and community in each country.

In addition to its bilateral engagements, the Holy See is an active participant in multilateral diplomacy. Permanent observer status at the United Nations gives the Holy See broad participation rights without making it a UN member state. Its delegates can attend and address meetings of the General Assembly, and they may take part in the Security Council and the Economic and Social Council when the agenda is relevant. Under UN auspices, those delegates contribute to drafting and negotiating international treaties on an equal footing with member states. Dedicated missions in New York and Geneva follow the work of UN bodies closely. The Holy See uses observer status to preserve political neutrality while engaging on humanitarian and moral issues. Its multilateral presence extends beyond the UN system: it is a full member of the OSCE, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the World Intellectual Property Organization and the International Telecommunication Union, while holding observer status in bodies such as the WTO, WHO and UNESCO.

The Holy See’s commitment to the international legal order is further evidenced by its adherence to multilateral treaties. It is party to core humanitarian-law agreements such as the Geneva Conventions. In security law, it participates in arms-control regimes, including nuclear non-proliferation. In technical and cultural fields, it adheres to treaties that protect cultural heritage and coordinate rules for intellectual property and communications. In human rights, the Holy See has ratified several core UN treaties. These instruments include the Convention against Torture, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. By becoming a party to these instruments, the Holy See accepts the obligation to uphold their standards and submits its relevant practices to periodic review.

Peace Mediation and Quiet Diplomacy

The Holy See leverages its unique standing and moral authority to influence international affairs. It often acts as a facilitator for peace and as an advocate for human dignity. That influence does not come from coercive power. It works by keeping diplomatic channels open where ordinary state-to-state politics is blocked, by giving moral language to international debates, and by mobilizing Catholic institutions already present in local societies. The Holy See is most relevant where legitimacy, trust and humanitarian access matter more than material leverage.

Its mediation works best when parties want a discreet channel that carries moral authority without ordinary great-power leverage. The intervention requested by Argentina and Chile in the late 1970s helped avert a possible war over the Beagle Channel. After years of mediation led by Cardinal Antonio Samorè under Pope John Paul II’s mandate, the parties reached the 1984 Treaty of Peace and Friendship. Under Pope Francis, the Holy See helped foster communication between the United States and Cuba. It used its diplomatic channels and “good offices” to host meetings in 2014 that contributed to the normalization of relations. Direct mediation depends on the willingness of conflicting parties, while the Holy See’s broader diplomacy consistently advocates dialogue and peaceful negotiation. This approach is often described as a “diplomacy of hope”.

This indoor image documents a formal diplomatic meeting between Pope Francis and Volodymyr Zelensky, the President of Ukraine. The scene takes place in a richly decorated room with warm yellow and gold wallpaper featuring intricate patterns. The floor is covered with a polished, reddish-brown and white checkered marble tile, reflecting the light that pours in from a tall window draped with white curtains in the background. Pope Francis stands to the right, dressed in his traditional white papal cassock, with a matching zucchetto (skullcap) and cape. He is smiling warmly and extending his right hand in a handshake to President Zelensky, who stands to the left, wearing a dark black suit, white shirt, and black tie. Zelensky is also smiling, leaning slightly forward in a gesture of respect. Between and behind them, a cameraman dressed in a black suit records the moment with a large professional video camera. Another man in a dark suit stands further back to the right, and a member of the clergy in a brown habit (possibly a Franciscan friar) stands closer behind the Pope, observing the interaction. The room’s atmosphere is formal and diplomatic, characterized by mutual respect and a sense of occasion. The lighting is bright and natural, casting soft shadows and highlighting the expressions and gestures of the two main figures. The setting and the presence of media and attendants underscore the importance of this high-level meeting between the leader of the Catholic Church and the President of Ukraine. — Pope Francis meeting with Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelensky in the context of the Russo-Ukrainian War. Image from the website of the Presidency of Ukraine, licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Interreligious, Humanitarian, and Cultural Reach

Closely linked to its peacebuilding efforts is the Holy See’s dedicated work in promoting interreligious dialogue. Popes and Vatican dicasteries have increasingly prioritized bridges with leaders and communities of other religions. The work includes joint conferences and shared declarations against violence. It extends into theological discussions and cooperative projects on peace, justice and environmental stewardship. Interreligious dialogue aims to reduce conflict motivated by religion and to support cooperation for the common good.

Advocacy on pressing global issues forms another cornerstone of the Holy See’s international activity, frequently centered on the defense of human dignity.

The Holy See calls for universal recognition and protection of fundamental human rights, with particular emphasis on religious freedom. Under Pope Francis, migrants, refugees and victims of human trafficking received sustained attention. Francis urged nations to adopt more welcoming and integration-focused policies and condemned xenophobia toward people fleeing war, poverty or persecution. Under Pope Leo XIV, that diplomatic agenda continues inside a broader Holy See emphasis on peace, human dignity and humanitarian protection. The Holy See supported the UN Global Compacts for Migration and Refugees to embed dignity and shared responsibility into international frameworks for human mobility.

The Holy See’s advocacy extends to environmental concerns, articulated in Pope Francis’s 2015 encyclical letter Laudato si’, On Care for Our Common Home. The encyclical presented a moral and spiritual framework for environmental challenges. Laudato si’ argued for an “integral ecology” that links planetary well-being with social justice and human flourishing. The encyclical critiqued consumerism and irresponsible development and called for urgent action on climate change, biodiversity loss and unsustainable lifestyles. Laudato si’ raised the profile of environmental issues within the Catholic Church and contributed a distinct ethical voice to international climate negotiations.

Beyond diplomatic pronouncements, the Holy See inspires and supports humanitarian activity by Catholic organizations worldwide. The Holy See can provide direct emergency aid through papal charities, but its broader impact lies in supporting entities such as Caritas Internationalis. Caritas is a confederation of Catholic relief, development and social service organizations operating in more than 200 countries and territories. Through its supervision of religious orders, the Holy See remains connected to institutions dedicated to healthcare, education and social services. Catholic humanitarian networks assist vulnerable populations affected by conflict and natural disasters. Those networks respond to poverty and disease as practical expressions of the Holy See’s concern for human welfare.

The Holy See engages in cultural diplomacy through its institutions. The Vatican Apostolic Library and the Vatican Secret Archives house collections that document centuries of human history, art and culture. Those collections serve as major centers for international scholarly research. The Vatican Museums attract millions of visitors and display a major artistic heritage. Pontifical Academies bring international experts into dialogue on science, society and contemporary ethical questions. Vatican cultural institutions support cultural exchange and intellectual engagement. They also give the Holy See a forum where historical memory, scholarship and ethical debate intersect with foreign policy.

In recent diplomatic engagements, the relationship with the People’s Republic of China remains a key focus. The 2018 Provisional Agreement on the appointment of bishops continues to guide efforts to normalize the life of the Catholic Church in China. It has been extended multiple times, most recently in October 2024 for four years. The China file shows how the Holy See separates pastoral access from full diplomatic recognition. The process remains delicate, and formal diplomatic ties have not been established. The Holy See still maintains formal diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan), which creates a complex geopolitical setting. In February 2023, the Holy See established full diplomatic relations with the Sultanate of Oman. The move reflected continued bridge-building, particularly within the Islamic world.

Conclusion

The Holy See’s legal status and diplomatic activities set it apart as a singular entity in international law. Its sovereignty enables it to maintain a vast diplomatic network, shape international agreements and contribute to multilateral organizations. It influences world affairs when it mediates between rivals, defends vulnerable communities, convenes religious dialogue and supports humanitarian work. Cultural institutions add another channel of global presence. As the Holy See navigates complex geopolitical landscapes, its diplomacy continues to emphasize dialogue, peace and the common good.